The first generation of biomarkers, used in biology and medicine as fluorescence labels, is based on organic dyes. In addition to many advantageous properties, these markers show also some disadvantageous ones. The most important are fluorescence bleaching and relatively wide excitation and emission bands. These limitations promoted search for alternative systems. Biomarkers based on quantum dots (e.g. CdS or CdSe) were investigated as the second generation of fluorescence labels. Unfortunately, these markers show also several disadvantageous properties, such as use of toxic cadmium, fluorescence blinking, energy migration, etc.

In the talk properties of a new generation of biomarkers will be discussed. They are based on biocompatible nanoparticles (NPs) of oxides (ZnO, ZnAl₂O₄ and ZrO₂) activated with rare earth (RE) ions. RE ions are used because of their sharp atomic-like emission independent of host properties and a size of NPs.

Our tests of NPs biocompatibility indicate that use of relatively large-size NPs (say in the range of 50 nm) allows their detection as foreign objects in the body. Tests on adult mice prove that NPs can be introduced via gastric gavage (IG), which is followed by an intestinal uptake. NPs transport to the variety of tissues and organs (liver, spleen, pancreas and kidney) is detected. Importantly, NPs are recognized as foreign objects and are then removed from most of the organs. Their biocompatibility is confirmed. For the ZnO NPs the metabolism of NPs and further utilization/redistribution of Zn in ionic form is observed.

Acknowledgment

The research was partially supported by the European Union through grant of Innovative Economy (POIG.01.01.02-00-008/08) and by the NCN grant 2012/05/E/NZ4/02994.

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